Category: Essays

The Earth was formed about 4.7 billion years ago. The Earth’s shape is very close to that of a sphere, not perfectly spherical. The Earth’s equatorial diameter is about 12,756 km, which is slightly larger than the polar diameter; about 12,714 km Surface Area of the Earth is 510,065,600 km2 of which 148,939,100 km2 (29.2 %) is land and 361,126,400 km2 (70.8 %) is water.The Earth rotates on its axis, an imaginary straight line through its centre. The two points where the axis of rotation intersects the Earth’s surface are called as the poles, one of them is called the North Pole and the other is known as the South Pole. One rotation with respect to Sun is completed in 24 hours, called a solar day.The Earth rotates in counter-clock…

(1) Every suit shall be instituted by the presentation of a Plaint or in such other manner as may be prescribed.[(2) In every plaint, facts shall be proved by affidavit.] ADVERTISEMENTS: Every suit is to be instituted by presenting a plaint to the court or to such officer as it appoints in that behalf. [Order IV, Rule 1(1)]. Presentation must be by delivery to the court or its officer either personally or by a pleader. Sending by post is not sufficient.There is nothing in the Code to suggest that a plaint should be presented during court hours or within court premises, and hence the judge or officer of the court authorised to accept plaints may accept it outside office hours or the court buildings, though he is not bound to…

Power to transfer suits which may be instituted in more than one Court:Where a suit may be instituted in any one of two or more Courts and is instituted in one of such Courts, any defendant, after notice to the other parties, may, at the earliest possible opportunity and in all cases where issues are settled at or before such settlement, apply to have the suit transferred to another Court, and the Court to which such application is made, after considering the objections of the other parties (if any), shall determine in which of the several Courts having jurisdiction the suit shall proceed.Ordinarily, the plaintiff has a right to choose the forum where he has the choice of two or more courts in which he may properly institute a suit.…

(1) Where the several Courts having jurisdiction are subordinate to the same appellate Court, an application under section 22 shall be made to the appellate Court.(2) Where such Courts are subordinate to different appellate Courts but to the same High Court, the application shall be made to the said High Court.(3) Where such Courts are subordinate to different High Courts, the application shall be made to the High Court within the local limits of whose jurisdiction the Court in which the suit is brought is situate. Image Source: veronicaforand.com ADVERTISEMENTS: An application under section 22 is to be made to the appellate court where the several courts having jurisdiction are under the same court of appeal or to the High Court where the several courts are under the same High…

Masud (1030-1040 A.D.) The empire of Mahmood was so vast that it was very difficult to control it efficiently. He knew this fact very well. He, therefore, divided his vast empire into two parts even in his life time and gave one to his son Masud and the other to Muhammad. Image Source: upload.wikimedia.orgHowever, after his death a conflict took place between the two brothers in which Masud achieved success. He blinded and imprisoned Muhammad. Masud was a worthy son of a worthy father. Dr. Ishwari Prasad has written about him, “He was a true son of his father, full of ambition, courage and war-like zeal.” He got the blessings of the contemporary Khalifa and ruled for about ten years. ADVERTISEMENTS: Although Masud was quite powerful and courageous, he was…

ABO Blood GroupingA person’s ABO blood group-A, B, AB, or O—is based on the presence or absence of the A and B antigens on his red blood cells. ADVERTISEMENTS: The A blood type has only the A antigen and the B blood type has only the B antigen. The AB blood type has both A and B antigens, and the O blood type has neither A nor B antigen.By the time a person is six months old, he naturally will have developed antibodies against the antigens his red blood cells lack.That is, a person with A blood type will have anti-B antibodies, and a person with B blood type will have anti-A antibodies.A person with AB blood type will have neither antibody, but a person with O blood type will…

Cheating 1. Cheating is explained in Ss. 415-420. ADVERTISEMENTS: 2. The wrong-doer deceives a person fraudulently or dishonestly and induces the person deceived, and obtains the property.3. The wrong-doer obtains the property by cheating and enjoys it. image source: goodenoughmother.com4. After the property passed into the hands of the wrong-doer, he may do efforts for enhancing the value of it, and improve it.5. The aim of the wrong-doer is to have the property by deceitful and fraudulent manners, and to enjoy it. ADVERTISEMENTS: 6. By cheating, individual persons and properties are affected.7. Illustrations: [Write Illustrations appended to Sec. 415.]Mischief:1. Mischief is explained in Ss. 425-440. ADVERTISEMENTS: 2. The accused causes wrongful loss or damage to the public or to any person.3. The wrong-doer causes destruction of the property.4. The wrong-doer…

Cheating:1. Cheating is explained in Ss. 415-420. ADVERTISEMENTS: 2. In cheating, the wrong-doer deceives any person dishonestly and fraudulently and induces such person to deliver any property. The wrongdoer may include the deceived person to do or omit an act.3. The act of cheating starts from inducing and ends when the wrong-doer obtains the property. image source: natcom.org4. Cheating may be done by any person.5. Cheating can be played against immovable property only. ADVERTISEMENTS: 6. In cheating, property is removed from the possession of the owner by the cheater.7. Illustrations: [Write the illustrations of Sec.Criminal Breach of Trust:1. Criminal Breach of Trust is explained in Ss. 405-409. ADVERTISEMENTS: 2. In trust, the owner of the property entrusts the property to the wrong-doer having “trust” and belief in him.3. The act…

Where five or more persons had committed or attempted to commit a robbery, it is called dacoity A robbery is committed by one to four persons and having the ingredients of S. 389 is a robbery.When five or more persons conjointly commit or attempt to commit a robbery or where the whole number of persons conjointly committing or attempting to commit a robbery, and persons present and aiding such commission or attempt amount to five or more, every person so committing, attempting or aiding is called “Dacoity”. The main difference between robbery and dacoity is the number of the accused participated in the offence.Dacoity: ADVERTISEMENTS: 1. Section 391 defines “Dacoity”.2. Dacoity is the aggravated form of Robbery.3. The main difference between Robbery and Dacoity is number of participants in committing…

Assault:1. Assault is defined in Sec. 351 I.P.C. ADVERTISEMENTS: 2. There is no physical contact in an assault.3. It is an ‘attempt’ to commit force/criminal force. image source: baytoday.ca4. Every assault may not include force/criminal force.5. An assault is an over act indicating an immediate to commit force/criminal force coupled with the capacity of carrying out the intention into effect. ADVERTISEMENTS: 6. In order to constitute an assault it is also necessary that the person so assaulted must, on reasonable grounds, believe that the person assaulting has the ability to apply the force/criminal force so attempted by him,7. Throwing the water upon a person is an assault.8. Assault is a lesser form of offence, comparing with force/criminal force.9. Illustrations: [write illustrations of see. 351]. ADVERTISEMENTS: Force/Criminal Force:1. Force is explained…